The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650 - 1815

Chapter 7 focuses on Pontiac's Rebellion in 1763. Although British reinforcements eventually lifted sieges at some forts, the rebellion did not end decisively. Rather than the typical portrayal of the uprising as a “racially foreordained Indian demise” (303), White argues that it resulted in a return to the middle ground. He also contends that Pontiac was not a tragic figure leading a doomed fight, but a leader responding to the changing political environment. The rebellion's roots trace back to the cession of Canada. The various failings of the British, French, and Algonquians led to the collapse of a united pays d'en haut. Without an outside intermediary, in-fighting between Algonquian villages began, and the British had the opportunity to exert control over the region. Following disease and famine, the Algonquians turned to them for help as they would have with the French but the British failed to act. As a result, the Algonquians began to perceive the British not as family but as enemies and called for revolt. The British, who relied on incomplete and often contradictory accounts, struggled to understand the political dynamics that led to this. The official cession of Canada to the British only exacerbated the problem as both the Algonquians and the remaining French-Canadian traders felt betrayed. This pushed the Algonquians back toward unity, hoping a revolt would expel the British and cause the French to return. Opposing the nostalgia for the French was a Delaware prophet, Neolin, who preached for the Algonquians to cast off all European influences, as the Europeans had brought sin with them. Pontiac was influenced by Neolin’s message but recast it into a specifically anti-British sentiment to unify with those who desired the return of France.

The British, who had wanted an alliance, sensed war was approaching. Amherst ignored the warnings of people like Johnson, who urged the return of the previous middle ground system, and instead decided to cut off supplies altogether. The desperate Algonquians began serious preparations for war. Previous fractures between Indigenous groups diminished, and Pontiac called a council to plan their next moves. Wampum war belts were sent out and triggered a series of attacks on the British by different tribes, and the rebellion spread. The response was brutal on both sides: British soldiers and traders were tortured, while Amherst suggested using smallpox blankets as a trap to spread disease amongst indigenous communities. Ultimately, the rebellion failed to oust the British. Appeals by the Algonquians for French help were met only with calls for peace. Ultimately, Pontiac called for peace negotiations, leaving both sides in a stalemate.

The alliance was restored in the pays d’en haut, which primarily resulted in a return to the status quo. The Algonquians resumed a similar paternalistic relationship with the British as they had done with the French. The language Johnson used in the negotiations, while still claiming sovereignty, used Algonquian diplomatic procedures. The Proclamation of 1763 forbade British settlement beyond the Appalachians, but exceptions weakened commitments to keep the pays d'en haut in Algonquian hands. Johnson also sought to rebuild lines of gifting and trade, and he sought to make new alliance chiefs. However, he still placed too much emphasis on Pontiac’s assumed power. As a result, Pontiac began acting outside of Algonquian cultural norms. This led to him losing the favor of his people and, ultimately, to his death. While the British had attempted to resurrect the French style of mediation, they viewed themselves as rulers not mediators and instead relegated that task to the Algonquian alliance chiefs.

Despite Johnson's attempts to recreate the French system, the British government was reluctant to enact it due to its cost. The new alliance also lacked the understanding that existed between the Algonquians and the French. As a result, the middle ground existed only in diplomacy and not in daily interactions between them. Another issue came from expansionist British villages in the backcountry that could not be officially controlled. These settlers refused to comply with the terms of alliance with the Algonquians. The decline of British traders and the absence of influential religious figures also hindered the revival of the middle ground. The failure to create a clear dividing line between Algonquian and European lands, to evict illegal settlers, or control traders contributed to Johnson and the other British officials’ challenges. The Stamp Act furthered the issue, giving control to the colonies, which regulated nothing, and Johnson’s funds were further limited. Algonquian-British diplomatic relations were strained again, and the British struggled to maintain authority.

As the alliance dwindled, a new middle ground emerged in the pays d’en haut that focused on those left out of Johnson’s view of diplomacy. This included “traders, Algonquian women, missionaries, ex-prisoners, some back-country settlers, and eastern Indian refugees” (356). It arose due to trade and the European captives that had lived amongst the Algonquians following the Seven Years’ War and Pontiac’s Rebellion. This new middle ground centered around relationships with women to create kinship networks. It included the Métis, but also the ability to introduce Europeans to Algonquian and Iroquois society through ritual. Women chose who would be adopted, enslaved, or die among white captives. While the Algonquians meant to incorporate those adopted into their society, it was rarely a complete transformation when enacted on adults. Instead, a new middle ground emerged from these people. Following the rebellion’s end, some remained within the communities or nearby. Exchange rituals returned as well. The influence of rum as a trade good had a particular impact. It became linked with the trade of sex when women used the bottles they received in exchange for sex to further their trading power in other transactions. This shift from traditional exchange methods to those focused on profit caused concern among Algonquian communities. Increased common understanding also emerged between Algonquians and Europeans regarding religious beliefs, particularly the importance of interpreting dreams and omens, and witchcraft. While prophets, like Neolin, sought separation from European influence, they also took elements from missionaries’ teachings.

While the new cultural middle ground slowly emerged, the political alliance between the British and Algonquians continued to collapse. Due to their numbers, the European villagers taking over the backcountry became an independent force. The lawlessness of young men among them, similar to that of the Algonquians, could not be controlled, leading to conflict between the two groups. Both societies relied on a mix of agriculture, grazing animals, and hunting, putting them into direct competition over resources. Rum also heightened tensions, and murders increased on both sides. Johnson attempted to control this violence through British law, but this often failed. The amount of killings, robberies, and sexual assaults in the region forced the British to abandon their attempts at legal control and return to earlier conciliatory measures. These attempts at reconciliation with the Algonquians were hindered by the British desire for more territory. The Iroquois also caused further issues by ceding land that was not theirs in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix. Johnson allowed this because he was one of the speculators who stood to gain. Despite increased demand for land in the pays d’en haut, imperial power was in decline. Some of the Algonquians sensed this. The Shawnee attempted to combat the treaty, but Johnson managed to subvert them, and their chiefs lost control. However, the British also lost control over their people: Settlers spread further and clashed with the Algonquian tribes. Escalating violence in Kentucky grew into Lord Dunmore’s War. The following peace terms were not an end to the conflict. Instead, it signaled the beginning of the war between the Algonquian and European villages that now controlled the area.